Should You Outsource Your IT Needs? An Opinion Piece

Should You Outsource Your IT Needs? An Opinion Piece

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Evaluating the Cost-Benefit of IT Outsourcing


Okay, so, should you outsource your IT needs? IT services in sydney . Like, seriously? Its a big question, innit? And a crucial part is evaluating the cost-benefit. Lets be real, nobody wants to throw money away, right?


We gotta consider the actual cost. It aint just about the monthly invoice from the outsourcing company. You gotta think about what youre not spending on internal staff (salaries, benefits, training, the whole shebang). And equipment! Dont forget the hardware, software licenses (ugh, those are pricey!), and the ongoing maintenance of it all.


But its not only about saving cash, ya know? What about expertise? Do you really have someone internally whos a whiz at everything IT related? Probably not. Outsourcing gives you access to a team with, like, specialized skills you probably couldnt afford to hire otherwise.

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Think cybersecurity, cloud solutions, all that fancy stuff. Plus, they keep up with the latest trends, so you dont have to!


However! Its not all sunshine and rainbows. You gotta factor in the potential drawbacks. Communication can be a challenge. Are they in a different time zone? Is there a language barrier? And control! Youre relinquishing some control over your IT infrastructure, and that can be nerve-wracking! Are they truly going to understand your business needs as well as someone down the hall could?


So, evaluating the cost-benefit isnt just about crunching numbers. Its about weighing the financial savings against the potential risks and the gains in expertise and efficiency. Its a judgement call, really. But hey, do your homework, weigh the pros and cons, and youll make the right decision, Im sure! Good luck!

Assessing Security and Data Protection in External Partnerships


Assessing security and data protection in external partnerships sure is a tricky business! When youre considering outsourcing your IT needs, its not just about finding a company that can do the job well. Youve got to think about whos going to be handling your data and how theyre going to keep it safe. Its like leaving your house to go on vacation and worrying about whether your neighbor will look after it properly!


Now, you might think that all these external partners have their act together when it comes to security and data protection. But hey, not everyone plays by the same rules. Some might cut corners to save money, and thats not something you want in your IT provider. You definitely dont want them losing your sensitive data or worse, getting hacked!


So, what can you do? Well, for starters, you need to ask a lot of questions. How do they protect data? Do they have the right certifications? What happens if theres a breach? Its not about being paranoid, its about being proactive. You know, better safe than sorry, right?


And dont forget to check their references and case studies. See if theyve had any incidents in the past and how they handled them. That can give you a pretty good idea of their reliability. But even then, its not a guarantee. Nothing is ever 100% foolproof in this digital age!




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In the end, outsourcing your IT needs isnt about avoiding responsibility. Its about finding a partner who can handle your data with the same level of care and professionalism that you would. So, make sure you do your homework and dont just settle for anyone wholl take your business. Your datas too important to leave it to chance!

Ensuring Compatibility with In-House Teams and Processes


When youre thinking about outsourcing your IT needs, ensuring compatibility with your in-house teams and processes can be a real hurdle! You dont want to end up with a disconnect that leaves everyone scratching their heads. Its like trying to fit a square peg in a round hole - it just doesnt work.


Now imagine youve invested time and effort in building a system that works perfectly for your team - and then suddenly, youve got an outsourced provider who doesnt quite get it. Thats not what you bargained for, is it? You need someone who can not only understand your tech but also how your team operates. Its not just about getting the job done; its about doing it in a way that makes sense for your workflow.


But why complicate things, right? Sometimes, the idea of bringing in outside help can seem like a dream come true - someone else to handle the techy stuff so you can focus on what you do best. And while there are certainly benefits to outsourcing, youve gotta be careful. Ensuring that the provider gets your unique setup and can work seamlessly with your team is crucial.


Neglecting this step can lead to miscommunications, delays, and even project failures. Its like having a great recipe but using the wrong ingredients - the end result just isnt the same. So, before you make the leap, take the time to check compatibility. Make sure the outsourced provider understands not just the technology but also the culture and the people behind it.


In the end, its not about whether or not to outsource your IT needs. Its about making sure that whatever decision you make works for you and your team. Compatibility is key, and not getting it right can be a real pain in the neck!

Managing Change and Maintaining Business Continuity


When we talk about outsourcing IT needs, its essential to think about managing change and keeping business continuity. A lot of companies are scared of making a shift like this, and honestly, who can blame them? Change isnt easy, especially when it comes to something as crucial as IT! But let's dive into why outsourcing might actually be a good idea and how it can help with those fears.


First off, lets be real-maintaining business continuity is no small feat. Companies need reliable systems that dont just work today but can adapt to tomorrows challenges. When you think about outsourcing, you might worry that youre handing over control. Yet, it can actually free up your internal team to focus on what they do best. Imagine your staff not being bogged down by daily IT issues. Instead, they can innovate and drive your business forward. Its not like youre completely losing control; youre just shifting the way you handle it!


Moreover, managing change is all about being strategic. If you choose the right IT partner, they can help you navigate the complexities that come with new technology and processes. They've got the expertise to make sure things run smoothly, and their experience can often prevent costly mistakes. Plus, if you ever face a crisis, having an outsourced team can mean quicker responses and solutions.

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It's like having a safety net that you didn't know you needed!


Of course, not everything is sunshine and rainbows.

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You might encounter some bumps in the road. Communication can get tricky, and sometimes it feels like youre not on the same page. But with clear expectations and regular check-ins, these issues can be minimized. It's all about building a solid relationship with your outsourcing partner.


In conclusion, while the thought of outsourcing IT might make you hesitate, it can ultimately help you manage change effectively while maintaining business continuity. Don't let fear hold you back! Embracing this strategy (with the right partner) can lead to growth and innovation. So, should you outsource your IT needs? Well, if you're willing to navigate the change, it might just be the best decision you ever make!

Citations and other links

A mindmap of ICTs
Internet history timeline

Early research and development:

Merging the networks and creating the Internet:

Commercialization, privatization, broader access leads to the modern Internet:

Examples of Internet services:

Information and communications technology (ICT) is an extensional term for information technology (IT) that stresses the role of unified communications[1] and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals) and computers, as well as necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage and audiovisual, that enable users to access, store, transmit, understand and manipulate information.

ICT is also used to refer to the convergence of audiovisuals and telephone networks with computer networks through a single cabling or link system. There are large economic incentives to merge the telephone networks with the computer network system using a single unified system of cabling, signal distribution, and management. ICT is an umbrella term that includes any communication device, encompassing radio, television, cell phones, computer and network hardware, satellite systems and so on, as well as the various services and appliances with them such as video conferencing and distance learning. ICT also includes analog technology, such as paper communication, and any mode that transmits communication.[2]

ICT is a broad subject and the concepts are evolving.[3] It covers any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate, process, transmit, or receive information electronically in a digital form (e.g., personal computers including smartphones, digital television, email, or robots). Skills Framework for the Information Age is one of many models for describing and managing competencies for ICT professionals in the 21st century.[4]

Etymology

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The phrase "information and communication technologies" has been used by academic researchers since the 1980s.[5] The abbreviation "ICT" became popular after it was used in a report to the UK government by Dennis Stevenson in 1997,[6] and then in the revised National Curriculum for England, Wales and Northern Ireland in 2000. However, in 2012, the Royal Society recommended that the use of the term "ICT" should be discontinued in British schools "as it has attracted too many negative connotations".[7] From 2014, the National Curriculum has used the word computing, which reflects the addition of computer programming into the curriculum.[8]

Variations of the phrase have spread worldwide. The United Nations has created a "United Nations Information and Communication Technologies Task Force" and an internal "Office of Information and Communications Technology".[9]

Monetization

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The money spent on IT worldwide has been estimated as US$3.8 trillion[10] in 2017 and has been growing at less than 5% per year since 2009. The estimated 2018 growth of the entire ICT is 5%. The biggest growth of 16% is expected in the area of new technologies (IoT, Robotics, AR/VR, and AI).[11]

The 2014 IT budget of the US federal government was nearly $82 billion.[12] IT costs, as a percentage of corporate revenue, have grown 50% since 2002, putting a strain on IT budgets. When looking at current companies' IT budgets, 75% are recurrent costs, used to "keep the lights on" in the IT department, and 25% are the cost of new initiatives for technology development.[13]

The average IT budget has the following breakdown:[13]

  • 34% personnel costs (internal), 31% after correction
  • 16% software costs (external/purchasing category), 29% after correction
  • 33% hardware costs (external/purchasing category), 26% after correction
  • 17% costs of external service providers (external/services), 14% after correction

The estimated amount of money spent in 2022 is just over US$6 trillion.[14]

Technological capacity

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The world's technological capacity to store information grew from 2.6 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 1986 to 15.8 in 1993, over 54.5 in 2000, and to 295 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 2007, and some 5 zettabytes in 2014.[15][16] This is the informational equivalent to 1.25 stacks of CD-ROM from the earth to the moon in 2007, and the equivalent of 4,500 stacks of printed books from the earth to the sun in 2014. The world's technological capacity to receive information through one-way broadcast networks was 432 exabytes of (optimally compressed) information in 1986, 715 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 1993, 1.2 (optimally compressed) zettabytes in 2000, and 1.9 zettabytes in 2007.[15] The world's effective capacity to exchange information through two-way telecommunication networks was 281 petabytes of (optimally compressed) information in 1986, 471 petabytes in 1993, 2.2 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 2000, 65 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 2007,[15] and some 100 exabytes in 2014.[17] The world's technological capacity to compute information with humanly guided general-purpose computers grew from 3.0 × 10^8 MIPS in 1986, to 6.4 x 10^12 MIPS in 2007.[15]

Sector in the OECD

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The following is a list of OECD countries by share of ICT sector in total value added in 2013.[18]

Rank Country ICT sector in % Relative size
1  South Korea 10.7 10.7
 
2  Japan 7.02 7.02
 
3  Ireland 6.99 6.99
 
4  Sweden 6.82 6.82
 
5  Hungary 6.09 6.09
 
6  United States 5.89 5.89
 
7  India 5.87 5.87
 
8  Czech Republic 5.74 5.74
 
9 Finland 5.60 5.6
 
10  United Kingdom 5.53 5.53
 
11  Estonia 5.33 5.33
 
12  Slovakia 4.87 4.87
 
13  Germany 4.84 4.84
 
14  Luxembourg 4.54 4.54
 
15   Switzerland 4.63 4.63
 
16  France 4.33 4.33
 
17  Slovenia 4.26 4.26
 
18  Denmark 4.06 4.06
 
19  Spain 4.00 4
 
20  Canada 3.86 3.86
 
21  Italy 3.72 3.72
 
22  Belgium 3.72 3.72
 
23  Austria 3.56 3.56
 
24  Portugal 3.43 3.43
 
25  Poland 3.33 3.33
 
26  Norway 3.32 3.32
 
27  Greece 3.31 3.31
 
28  Iceland 2.87 2.87
 
29  Mexico 2.77 2.77
 

ICT Development Index

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The ICT Development Index ranks and compares the level of ICT use and access across the various countries around the world.[19] In 2014 ITU (International Telecommunication Union) released the latest rankings of the IDI, with Denmark attaining the top spot, followed by South Korea. The top 30 countries in the rankings include most high-income countries where the quality of life is higher than average, which includes countries from Europe and other regions such as "Australia, Bahrain, Canada, Japan, Macao (China), New Zealand, Singapore, and the United States; almost all countries surveyed improved their IDI ranking this year."[20]

The WSIS process and development goals

[edit]

On 21 December 2001, the United Nations General Assembly approved Resolution 56/183, endorsing the holding of the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) to discuss the opportunities and challenges facing today's information society.[21] According to this resolution, the General Assembly related the Summit to the United Nations Millennium Declaration's goal of implementing ICT to achieve Millennium Development Goals. It also emphasized a multi-stakeholder approach to achieve these goals, using all stakeholders including civil society and the private sector, in addition to governments.

To help anchor and expand ICT to every habitable part of the world, "2015 is the deadline for achievements of the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which global leaders agreed upon in the year 2000."[22]

In education

[edit]
Today's society shows the ever-growing computer-centric lifestyle, which includes the rapid influx of computers in the modern classroom.

There is evidence that, to be effective in education, ICT must be fully integrated into the pedagogy. Specifically, when teaching literacy and math, using ICT in combination with Writing to Learn[23][24] produces better results than traditional methods alone or ICT alone.[25] The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), a division of the United Nations, has made integrating ICT into education as part of its efforts to ensure equity and access to education. The following, which was taken directly from a UNESCO publication on educational ICT, explains the organization's position on the initiative.

Information and Communication Technology can contribute to universal access to education, equity in education, the delivery of quality learning and teaching, teachers' professional development and more efficient education management, governance, and administration. UNESCO takes a holistic and comprehensive approach to promote ICT in education. Access, inclusion, and quality are among the main challenges they can address. The Organization's Intersectoral Platform for ICT in education focuses on these issues through the joint work of three of its sectors: Communication & Information, Education and Science.[26]

OLPC Laptops at school in Rwanda

Despite the power of computers to enhance and reform teaching and learning practices, improper implementation is a widespread issue beyond the reach of increased funding and technological advances with little evidence that teachers and tutors are properly integrating ICT into everyday learning.[27] Intrinsic barriers such as a belief in more traditional teaching practices and individual attitudes towards computers in education as well as the teachers own comfort with computers and their ability to use them all as result in varying effectiveness in the integration of ICT in the classroom.[28]

Mobile learning for refugees

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School environments play an important role in facilitating language learning. However, language and literacy barriers are obstacles preventing refugees from accessing and attending school, especially outside camp settings.[29]

Mobile-assisted language learning apps are key tools for language learning. Mobile solutions can provide support for refugees' language and literacy challenges in three main areas: literacy development, foreign language learning and translations. Mobile technology is relevant because communicative practice is a key asset for refugees and immigrants as they immerse themselves in a new language and a new society. Well-designed mobile language learning activities connect refugees with mainstream cultures, helping them learn in authentic contexts.[29]

Developing countries

[edit]

Africa

[edit]
A computer screen at the front of a room of policymakers shows the Mobile Learning Week logo
Representatives meet for a policy forum on M-Learning at UNESCO's Mobile Learning Week in March 2017.

ICT has been employed as an educational enhancement in Sub-Saharan Africa since the 1960s. Beginning with television and radio, it extended the reach of education from the classroom to the living room, and to geographical areas that had been beyond the reach of the traditional classroom. As the technology evolved and became more widely used, efforts in Sub-Saharan Africa were also expanded. In the 1990s a massive effort to push computer hardware and software into schools was undertaken, with the goal of familiarizing both students and teachers with computers in the classroom. Since then, multiple projects have endeavoured to continue the expansion of ICT's reach in the region, including the One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) project, which by 2015 had distributed over 2.4 million laptops to nearly two million students and teachers.[30]

The inclusion of ICT in the classroom, often referred to as M-Learning, has expanded the reach of educators and improved their ability to track student progress in Sub-Saharan Africa. In particular, the mobile phone has been most important in this effort. Mobile phone use is widespread, and mobile networks cover a wider area than internet networks in the region. The devices are familiar to student, teacher, and parent, and allow increased communication and access to educational materials. In addition to benefits for students, M-learning also offers the opportunity for better teacher training, which leads to a more consistent curriculum across the educational service area. In 2011, UNESCO started a yearly symposium called Mobile Learning Week with the purpose of gathering stakeholders to discuss the M-learning initiative.[30]

Implementation is not without its challenges. While mobile phone and internet use are increasing much more rapidly in Sub-Saharan Africa than in other developing countries, the progress is still slow compared to the rest of the developed world, with smartphone penetration only expected to reach 20% by 2017.[30] Additionally, there are gender, social, and geo-political barriers to educational access, and the severity of these barriers vary greatly by country. Overall, 29.6 million children in Sub-Saharan Africa were not in school in the year 2012, owing not just to the geographical divide, but also to political instability, the importance of social origins, social structure, and gender inequality. Once in school, students also face barriers to quality education, such as teacher competency, training and preparedness, access to educational materials, and lack of information management.[30]

Growth in modern society and developing countries

[edit]

In modern society, ICT is ever-present, with over three billion people having access to the Internet.[31] With approximately 8 out of 10 Internet users owning a smartphone, information and data are increasing by leaps and bounds.[32] This rapid growth, especially in developing countries, has led ICT to become a keystone of everyday life, in which life without some facet of technology renders most of clerical, work and routine tasks dysfunctional.

The most recent authoritative data, released in 2014, shows "that Internet use continues to grow steadily, at 6.6% globally in 2014 (3.3% in developed countries, 8.7% in the developing world); the number of Internet users in developing countries has doubled in five years (2009–2014), with two-thirds of all people online now living in the developing world."[20]

Limitations

[edit]

However, hurdles are still large. "Of the 4.3 billion people not yet using the Internet, 90% live in developing countries. In the world's 42 Least Connected Countries (LCCs), which are home to 2.5 billion people, access to ICTs remains largely out of reach, particularly for these countries' large rural populations."[33] ICT has yet to penetrate the remote areas of some countries, with many developing countries dearth of any type of Internet. This also includes the availability of telephone lines, particularly the availability of cellular coverage, and other forms of electronic transmission of data. The latest "Measuring the Information Society Report" cautiously stated that the increase in the aforementioned cellular data coverage is ostensible, as "many users have multiple subscriptions, with global growth figures sometimes translating into little real improvement in the level of connectivity of those at the very bottom of the pyramid; an estimated 450 million people worldwide live in places which are still out of reach of mobile cellular service."[31]

Favourably, the gap between the access to the Internet and mobile coverage has decreased substantially in the last fifteen years, in which "2015 was the deadline for achievements of the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which global leaders agreed upon in the year 2000, and the new data show ICT progress and highlight remaining gaps."[22] ICT continues to take on a new form, with nanotechnology set to usher in a new wave of ICT electronics and gadgets. ICT newest editions into the modern electronic world include smartwatches, such as the Apple Watch, smart wristbands such as the Nike+ FuelBand, and smart TVs such as Google TV. With desktops soon becoming part of a bygone era, and laptops becoming the preferred method of computing, ICT continues to insinuate and alter itself in the ever-changing globe.

Information communication technologies play a role in facilitating accelerated pluralism in new social movements today. The internet according to Bruce Bimber is "accelerating the process of issue group formation and action"[34] and coined the term accelerated pluralism to explain this new phenomena. ICTs are tools for "enabling social movement leaders and empowering dictators"[35] in effect promoting societal change. ICTs can be used to garner grassroots support for a cause due to the internet allowing for political discourse and direct interventions with state policy[36] as well as change the way complaints from the populace are handled by governments. Furthermore, ICTs in a household are associated with women rejecting justifications for intimate partner violence. According to a study published in 2017, this is likely because "access to ICTs exposes women to different ways of life and different notions about women's role in society and the household, especially in culturally conservative regions where traditional gender expectations contrast observed alternatives."[37]

In health care

[edit]

In science

[edit]

Applications of ICTs in science, research and development, and academia include:

Models of access

[edit]

Scholar Mark Warschauer defines a "models of access" framework for analyzing ICT accessibility. In the second chapter of his book, Technology and Social Inclusion: Rethinking the Digital Divide, he describes three models of access to ICTs: devices, conduits, and literacy.[40] Devices and conduits are the most common descriptors for access to ICTs, but they are insufficient for meaningful access to ICTs without third model of access, literacy.[40] Combined, these three models roughly incorporate all twelve of the criteria of "Real Access" to ICT use, conceptualized by a non-profit organization called Bridges.org in 2005:[41]

  1. Physical access to technology
  2. Appropriateness of technology
  3. Affordability of technology and technology use
  4. Human capacity and training
  5. Locally relevant content, applications, and services
  6. Integration into daily routines
  7. Socio-cultural factors
  8. Trust in technology
  9. Local economic environment
  10. Macro-economic environment
  11. Legal and regulatory framework
  12. Political will and public support

Devices

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The most straightforward model of access for ICT in Mark Warschauer's theory is devices.[40] In this model, access is defined most simply as the ownership of a device such as a phone or computer.[40] Warschauer identifies many flaws with this model, including its inability to account for additional costs of ownership such as software, access to telecommunications, knowledge gaps surrounding computer use, and the role of government regulation in some countries.[40] Therefore, Warschauer argues that considering only devices understates the magnitude of digital inequality. For example, the Pew Research Center notes that 96% of Americans own a smartphone,[42] although most scholars in this field would contend that comprehensive access to ICT in the United States is likely much lower than that.

Conduits

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A conduit requires a connection to a supply line, which for ICT could be a telephone line or Internet line. Accessing the supply requires investment in the proper infrastructure from a commercial company or local government and recurring payments from the user once the line is set up. For this reason, conduits usually divide people based on their geographic locations. As a Pew Research Center poll reports, Americans in rural areas are 12% less likely to have broadband access than other Americans, thereby making them less likely to own the devices.[43] Additionally, these costs can be prohibitive to lower-income families accessing ICTs. These difficulties have led to a shift toward mobile technology; fewer people are purchasing broadband connection and are instead relying on their smartphones for Internet access, which can be found for free at public places such as libraries.[44] Indeed, smartphones are on the rise, with 37% of Americans using smartphones as their primary medium for internet access[44] and 96% of Americans owning a smartphone.[42]

Literacy

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Youth and adults with ICT skills, 2017

In 1981, Sylvia Scribner and Michael Cole studied a tribe in Liberia, the Vai people, who have their own local script. Since about half of those literate in Vai have never had formal schooling, Scribner and Cole were able to test more than 1,000 subjects to measure the mental capabilities of literates over non-literates.[45] This research, which they laid out in their book The Psychology of Literacy,[45] allowed them to study whether the literacy divide exists at the individual level. Warschauer applied their literacy research to ICT literacy as part of his model of ICT access.

Scribner and Cole found no generalizable cognitive benefits from Vai literacy; instead, individual differences on cognitive tasks were due to other factors, like schooling or living environment.[45] The results suggested that there is "no single construct of literacy that divides people into two cognitive camps; [...] rather, there are gradations and types of literacies, with a range of benefits closely related to the specific functions of literacy practices."[40] Furthermore, literacy and social development are intertwined, and the literacy divide does not exist on the individual level.

Warschauer draws on Scribner and Cole's research to argue that ICT literacy functions similarly to literacy acquisition, as they both require resources rather than a narrow cognitive skill. Conclusions about literacy serve as the basis for a theory of the digital divide and ICT access, as detailed below:

There is not just one type of ICT access, but many types. The meaning and value of access varies in particular social contexts. Access exists in gradations rather than in a bipolar opposition. Computer and Internet use brings no automatic benefit outside of its particular functions. ICT use is a social practice, involving access to physical artifacts, content, skills, and social support. And acquisition of ICT access is a matter not only of education but also of power.[40]

Therefore, Warschauer concludes that access to ICT cannot rest on devices or conduits alone; it must also engage physical, digital, human, and social resources.[40] Each of these categories of resources have iterative relations with ICT use. If ICT is used well, it can promote these resources, but if it is used poorly, it can contribute to a cycle of underdevelopment and exclusion.[45]

Environmental impact

[edit]

Progress during the century

[edit]

In the early 21st century a rapid development of ICT services and electronical devices took place, in which the internet servers multiplied by a factor of 1000 to 395 million and its still increasing. This increase can be explained by Moore's law, which states, that the development of ICT increases every year by 16–20%, so it will double in numbers every four to five years.[46] Alongside this development and the high investments in increasing demand for ICT capable products, a high environmental impact came with it. Software and Hardware development as well as production causing already in 2008 the same amount of CO2 emissions as global air travels.[46]

There are two sides of ICT, the positive environmental possibilities and the shadow side. On the positive side, studies proved, that for instance in the OECD countries a reduction of 0.235% energy use is caused by an increase in ICT capital by 1%.[47] On the other side the more digitization is happening, the more energy is consumed, that means for OECD countries 1% increase in internet users causes a raise of 0.026% electricity consumption per capita and for emerging countries the impact is more than 4 times as high.

Currently the scientific forecasts are showing an increase up to 30700 TWh in 2030 which is 20 times more than it was in 2010.[47]

Implication

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To tackle the environmental issues of ICT, the EU commission plans proper monitoring and reporting of the GHG emissions of different ICT platforms, countries and infrastructure in general. Further the establishment of international norms for reporting and compliance are promoted to foster transparency in this sector.[48]

Moreover it is suggested by scientists to make more ICT investments to exploit the potentials of ICT to alleviate CO2 emissions in general, and to implement a more effective coordination of ICT, energy and growth policies.[49] Consequently, applying the principle of the coase theorem makes sense. It recommends to make investments there, where the marginal avoidance costs of emissions are the lowest, therefore in the developing countries with comparatively lower technological standards and policies as high-tech countries. With these measures, ICT can reduce environmental damage from economic growth and energy consumption by facilitating communication and infrastructure.

In problem-solving

[edit]

ICTs could also be used to address environmental issues, including climate change, in various ways, including ways beyond education.[50][51][52]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Murray, James (2011-12-18). "Cloud network architecture and ICT - Modern Network Architecture". TechTarget =ITKnowledgeExchange. Archived from the original on 2017-09-20. Retrieved 2013-08-18.
  2. ^ Ozdamli, Fezile; Ozdal, Hasan (May 2015). "Life-long Learning Competence Perceptions of the Teachers and Abilities in Using Information-Communication .Technologies". Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 182: 718–725. doi:10.1016/j.access=free.
  3. ^ "ICT - What is it?". www.tutor2u.net. Archived from the original on 2015-11-02. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  4. ^ "IEEE-CS Adopts Skills Framework for the Information Age • IEEE Computer Society". www.computer.org. Retrieved 14 March 2018.[dead link]
  5. ^ William Melody et al., Information and Communication Technologies: Social Sciences Research and Training: A Report by the ESRC Programme on Information and Communication Technologies, ISBN 0-86226-179-1, 1986. Roger Silverstone et al., "Listening to a long conversation: an ethnographic approach to the study of information and communication technologies in the home", Cultural Studies, 5(2), pages 204–227, 1991.
  6. ^ The Independent ICT in Schools Commission, Information and Communications Technology in UK Schools: An Independent Inquiry, 1997. Impact noted in Jim Kelly, What the Web is Doing for Schools Archived 2011-07-11 at the Wayback Machine, Financial Times, 2000.
  7. ^ "Shut down or restart? The way forward for computing in UK schools" (PDF). Royal Society. January 2012. p. 18. Retrieved 2024-12-14.
  8. ^ Department for Education, "National curriculum in England: computing programmes of study".
  9. ^ United Nations Office of Information and Communications Technology, About Archived 2018-02-04 at the Wayback Machine
  10. ^ "IDC - Global ICT Spending - 2018 - $3.8T". IDC: The premier global market intelligence company. Retrieved 2018-09-24.
  11. ^ "IDC - Global ICT Spending - Forecast 2018 – 2022". IDC: The premier global market intelligence company. Retrieved 2018-09-24.
  12. ^ "Federal Information Technology FY2014 Budget Priorities" (PDF). obamawhitehouse.archives.gov.
  13. ^ a b "IT Costs – The Costs, Growth And Financial Risk Of Software Assets". OMT-CO Operations Management Technology Consulting GmbH. Archived from the original on 12 August 2013. Retrieved 26 June 2011.
  14. ^ "IDC - Global ICT Spending - Forecast 2018 – 2022". IDC: The premier global market intelligence company. Retrieved 2018-09-24.
  15. ^ a b c d "The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information", Martin Hilbert and Priscila López (2011), Science, 332(6025), 60–65; see also "free access to the study" and "video animation".
  16. ^ Gillings, Michael R; Hilbert, Martin; Kemp, Darrell J (2016). "Information in the Biosphere: Biological and Digital Worlds". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 31 (3): 180–189. Bibcode:2016TEcoE..31..180G. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2015.12.013. PMID 26777788. S2CID 3561873.
  17. ^ Hilbert, Martin (2016). "The bad news is that the digital access divide is here to stay: Domestically installed bandwidths among 172 countries for 1986–2014". Telecommunications Policy. 40 (6): 567–581. doi:10.1016/j.telpol.2016.01.006.
  18. ^ Figure 1.9 Share of ICT sector in total value added, 2013, doi:10.1787/888933224163
  19. ^ "Measuring the Information Society" (PDF). International Telecommunication Union. 2011. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  20. ^ a b "ITU releases annual global ICT data and ICT Development Index country ranking - librarylearningspace.com". 2014-11-30. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  21. ^ "Basic information : about was". International Telecommunication Union. 17 January 2006. Retrieved 26 May 2012.
  22. ^ a b "ICT Facts and Figures – The world in 2015". ITU. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  23. ^ "What is Writing to Learn, WAC Clearinghouse".
  24. ^ "Evidence for How Writing Can Improve Reading, Carnegie.Org 2010" (PDF).
  25. ^ Genlott, Annika Agélii; Grönlund, Åke (August 2016). "Closing the gaps – Improving literacy and mathematics by ict-enhanced collaboration". Computers & Education. 99: 68–80. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.04.004.
  26. ^ "ICT in Education". Unesco. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
  27. ^ Birt, Jacqueline; Safari, Maryam; de Castro, Vincent Bicudo (2023-03-20). "Critical analysis of integration of ICT and data analytics into the accounting curriculum: A multidimensional perspective". Accounting & Finance. 63 (4): 4037–4063. doi:10.1111/acfi.13084. ISSN 0810-5391. S2CID 257675501.
  28. ^ Blackwell, C.K., Lauricella, A.R. and Wartella, E., 2014. Factors influencing digital technology use in early childhood education. Computers & Education, 77, pp.82-90.
  29. ^ a b UNESCO (2018). A Lifeline to learning: leveraging mobile technology to support education for refugees. UNESCO. ISBN 978-92-3-100262-5.
  30. ^ a b c d Agence Française de Développement (February 2015). "Digital services for education in Africa" (PDF). unesco.org. Retrieved 19 May 2018.
  31. ^ a b "ITU releases annual global ICT data and ICT Development Index country rankings". www.itu.int. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  32. ^ "Survey: 1 In 6 Internet Users Own A Smartwatch Or Fitness Tracker". ARC. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  33. ^ "ITU releases annual global ICT data and ICT Development Index country rankings". www.itu.int. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  34. ^ Bimber, Bruce (1998-01-01). "The Internet and Political Transformation: Populism, Community, and Accelerated Pluralism". Polity. 31 (1): 133–160. doi:10.2307/3235370. JSTOR 3235370. S2CID 145159285.
  35. ^ Hussain, Muzammil M.; Howard, Philip N. (2013-03-01). "What Best Explains Successful Protest Cascades? ICTs and the Fuzzy Causes of the Arab Spring". International Studies Review. 15 (1): 48–66. doi:10.1111/misr.12020. hdl:2027.42/97489. ISSN 1521-9488.
  36. ^ Kirsh, David (2001). "The Context of Work". Human Computer Interaction. 16 (2–4): 305–322. doi:10.1207/S15327051HCI16234_12. S2CID 28915179.
  37. ^ Cardoso LG, Sorenson SB. Violence against women and household ownership of radios, computers, and phones in 20 countries. American Journal of Public Health. 2017; 107(7):1175–1181.
  38. ^ Novak, Matt. "Telemedicine Predicted in 1925". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
  39. ^ Albritton, Jordan; Ortiz, Alexa; Wines, Roberta; Booth, Graham; DiBello, Michael; Brown, Stephen; Gartlehner, Gerald; Crotty, Karen (7 December 2021). "Video Teleconferencing for Disease Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment" (PDF). Annals of Internal Medicine. 175 (2): 256–266. doi:10.7326/m21-3511. ISSN 0003-4819. PMID 34871056. S2CID 244923066.
  40. ^ a b c d e f g h Warschauer, Mark (2004). Technology and Social Inclusion. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. pp. 39–49. ISBN 0-262-23224-3.
  41. ^ "The Real Access / Real Impact framework for improving the way that ICT is used in development" (PDF). 26 December 2005.
  42. ^ a b "Mobile Fact Sheet". Pew Research Center. 13 November 2024.
  43. ^ Perrin, Andrew (19 August 2021). "Digital gap between rural and nonrural America persists". Pew Research Center.
  44. ^ a b Anderson, Monica (13 June 2019). "Mobile Technology and Home Broadband 2019". Pew Research Center.
  45. ^ a b c d Scribner and Cole, Sylvia and Michael (1981). The Psychology of Literacy. ISBN 9780674433014.
  46. ^ a b Gerhard, Fettweis; Zimmermann, Ernesto (2008). "ITC Energy Consumption - Trends and Challenges". The 11th International Symposium on Wireless Personal Multimedia Communications (WPMC 2008) – via ResearchGate.
  47. ^ a b Lange, Steffen; Pohl, Johanna; Santarius, Tilman (2020-10-01). "Digitalization and energy consumption. Does ICT reduce energy demand?". Ecological Economics. 176: 106760. Bibcode:2020EcoEc.17606760L. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2020.106760. ISSN 0921-8009. S2CID 224947774.
  48. ^ "Rolling Plan for ICT standardization 2021". Joinup. European Commission. 2021. Retrieved 2022-01-08.
  49. ^ Lu, Wen-Cheng (2018-12-01). "The impacts of information and communication technology, energy consumption, financial development, and economic growth on carbon dioxide emissions in 12 Asian countries". Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change. 23 (8): 1351–1365. Bibcode:2018MASGC..23.1351L. doi:10.1007/s11027-018-9787-y. ISSN 1573-1596. S2CID 158412820.
  50. ^ Fox, Evan Michael (2019). "Mobile Technology: A Tool to Increase Global Competency Among Higher Education Students". The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning. 20 (2). doi:10.19173/irrodl.v20i2.3961. ISSN 1492-3831. S2CID 242492985.
  51. ^ "Digitalisation for a circular economy: A driver for European Green Deal". EPC. Archived from the original on Oct 8, 2023.
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Sources

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Further reading

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[edit]

 

 

A computer lab contains a wide range of information technology elements, including hardware, software and storage systems.

Information technology (IT) is a set of related fields within information and communications technology (ICT), that encompass computer systems, software, programming languages, data and information processing, and storage. Information technology is an application of computer science and computer engineering.

The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several products or services within an economy are associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment, and e-commerce.[1][a]

An information technology system (IT system) is generally an information system, a communications system, or, more specifically speaking, a computer system — including all hardware, software, and peripheral equipment — operated by a limited group of IT users, and an IT project usually refers to the commissioning and implementation of an IT system.[3] IT systems play a vital role in facilitating efficient data management, enhancing communication networks, and supporting organizational processes across various industries. Successful IT projects require meticulous planning and ongoing maintenance to ensure optimal functionality and alignment with organizational objectives.[4]

Although humans have been storing, retrieving, manipulating, analysing and communicating information since the earliest writing systems were developed,[5] the term information technology in its modern sense first appeared in a 1958 article published in the Harvard Business Review; authors Harold J. Leavitt and Thomas L. Whisler commented that "the new technology does not yet have a single established name. We shall call it information technology (IT)."[6] Their definition consists of three categories: techniques for processing, the application of statistical and mathematical methods to decision-making, and the simulation of higher-order thinking through computer programs.[6]

History

[edit]
Antikythera mechanism, considered the first mechanical analog computer, dating back to the first century BC.

Based on the storage and processing technologies employed, it is possible to distinguish four distinct phases of IT development: pre-mechanical (3000 BC – 1450 AD), mechanical (1450 – 1840), electromechanical (1840 – 1940), and electronic (1940 to present).[5]

Ideas of computer science were first mentioned before the 1950s under the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Harvard University, where they had discussed and began thinking of computer circuits and numerical calculations. As time went on, the field of information technology and computer science became more complex and was able to handle the processing of more data. Scholarly articles began to be published from different organizations.[7]

During the early computing, Alan Turing, J. Presper Eckert, and John Mauchly were considered some of the major pioneers of computer technology in the mid-1900s. Giving them such credit for their developments, most of their efforts were focused on designing the first digital computer. Along with that, topics such as artificial intelligence began to be brought up as Turing was beginning to question such technology of the time period.[8]

Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, probably initially in the form of a tally stick.[9] The Antikythera mechanism, dating from about the beginning of the first century BC, is generally considered the earliest known mechanical analog computer, and the earliest known geared mechanism.[10] Comparable geared devices did not emerge in Europe until the 16th century, and it was not until 1645 that the first mechanical calculator capable of performing the four basic arithmetical operations was developed.[11]

Zuse Z3 replica on display at Deutsches Museum in Munich. The Zuse Z3 is the first programmable computer.

Electronic computers, using either relays or valves, began to appear in the early 1940s. The electromechanical Zuse Z3, completed in 1941, was the world's first programmable computer, and by modern standards one of the first machines that could be considered a complete computing machine. During the Second World War, Colossus developed the first electronic digital computer to decrypt German messages. Although it was programmable, it was not general-purpose, being designed to perform only a single task. It also lacked the ability to store its program in memory; programming was carried out using plugs and switches to alter the internal wiring.[12] The first recognizably modern electronic digital stored-program computer was the Manchester Baby, which ran its first program on 21 June 1948.[13]

The development of transistors in the late 1940s at Bell Laboratories allowed a new generation of computers to be designed with greatly reduced power consumption. The first commercially available stored-program computer, the Ferranti Mark I, contained 4050 valves and had a power consumption of 25 kilowatts. By comparison, the first transistorized computer developed at the University of Manchester and operational by November 1953, consumed only 150 watts in its final version.[14]

Several other breakthroughs in semiconductor technology include the integrated circuit (IC) invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959, silicon dioxide surface passivation by Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick in 1955,[15] the first planar silicon dioxide transistors by Frosch and Derick in 1957,[16] the MOSFET demonstration by a Bell Labs team,[17][18][19][20] the planar process by Jean Hoerni in 1959,[21][22][23] and the microprocessor invented by Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, Masatoshi Shima, and Stanley Mazor at Intel in 1971. These important inventions led to the development of the personal computer (PC) in the 1970s, and the emergence of information and communications technology (ICT).[24]

By 1984, according to the National Westminster Bank Quarterly Review, the term information technology had been redefined as "the convergence of telecommunications and computing technology (...generally known in Britain as information technology)." We then begin to see the appearance of the term in 1990 contained within documents for the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).[25]

Innovations in technology have already revolutionized the world by the twenty-first century as people have gained access to different online services. This has changed the workforce drastically as thirty percent of U.S. workers were already in careers in this profession. 136.9 million people were personally connected to the Internet, which was equivalent to 51 million households.[26] Along with the Internet, new types of technology were also being introduced across the globe, which has improved efficiency and made things easier across the globe.

As technology revolutionized society, millions of processes could be completed in seconds. Innovations in communication were crucial as people increasingly relied on computers to communicate via telephone lines and cable networks. The introduction of the email was considered revolutionary as "companies in one part of the world could communicate by e-mail with suppliers and buyers in another part of the world...".[27]

Not only personally, computers and technology have also revolutionized the marketing industry, resulting in more buyers of their products. In 2002, Americans exceeded $28 billion in goods just over the Internet alone while e-commerce a decade later resulted in $289 billion in sales.[27] And as computers are rapidly becoming more sophisticated by the day, they are becoming more used as people are becoming more reliant on them during the twenty-first century.

 

Data processing

[edit]
Ferranti Mark I computer logic board

Electronic data processing or business information processing can refer to the use of automated methods to process commercial data. Typically, this uses relatively simple, repetitive activities to process large volumes of similar information. For example: stock updates applied to an inventory, banking transactions applied to account and customer master files, booking and ticketing transactions to an airline's reservation system, billing for utility services. The modifier "electronic" or "automatic" was used with "data processing" (DP), especially c. 1960, to distinguish human clerical data processing from that done by computer.[28][29]

Storage

[edit]
Punched tapes were used in early computers to store and represent data.

Early electronic computers such as Colossus made use of punched tape, a long strip of paper on which data was represented by a series of holes, a technology now obsolete.[30] Electronic data storage, which is used in modern computers, dates from World War II, when a form of delay-line memory was developed to remove the clutter from radar signals, the first practical application of which was the mercury delay line.[31] The first random-access digital storage device was the Williams tube, which was based on a standard cathode ray tube.[32] However, the information stored in it and delay-line memory was volatile in the fact that it had to be continuously refreshed, and thus was lost once power was removed. The earliest form of non-volatile computer storage was the magnetic drum, invented in 1932[33] and used in the Ferranti Mark 1, the world's first commercially available general-purpose electronic computer.[34]

IBM card storage warehouse located in Alexandria, Virginia in 1959. This is where the United States government kept storage of punched cards.

IBM introduced the first hard disk drive in 1956, as a component of their 305 RAMAC computer system.[35]: 6  Most digital data today is still stored magnetically on hard disks, or optically on media such as CD-ROMs.[36]: 4–5  Until 2002 most information was stored on analog devices, but that year digital storage capacity exceeded analog for the first time. As of 2007, almost 94% of the data stored worldwide was held digitally:[37] 52% on hard disks, 28% on optical devices, and 11% on digital magnetic tape. It has been estimated that the worldwide capacity to store information on electronic devices grew from less than 3 exabytes in 1986 to 295 exabytes in 2007,[38] doubling roughly every 3 years.[39]

Databases

[edit]

Database Management Systems (DMS) emerged in the 1960s to address the problem of storing and retrieving large amounts of data accurately and quickly. An early such system was IBM's Information Management System (IMS),[40] which is still widely deployed more than 50 years later.[41] IMS stores data hierarchically,[40] but in the 1970s Ted Codd proposed an alternative relational storage model based on set theory and predicate logic and the familiar concepts of tables, rows, and columns. In 1981, the first commercially available relational database management system (RDBMS) was released by Oracle.[42]

All DMS consist of components; they allow the data they store to be accessed simultaneously by many users while maintaining its integrity.[43] All databases are common in one point that the structure of the data they contain is defined and stored separately from the data itself, in a database schema.[40]

In the late 2000s (decade), the extensible markup language (XML) has become a popular format for data representation. Although XML data can be stored in normal file systems, it is commonly held in relational databases to take advantage of their "robust implementation verified by years of both theoretical and practical effort."[44] As an evolution of the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), XML's text-based structure offers the advantage of being both machine- and human-readable.[45]

 

Transmission

[edit]
Radio towers at Pine Hill lookout

Data transmission has three aspects: transmission, propagation, and reception.[46] It can be broadly categorized as broadcasting, in which information is transmitted unidirectionally downstream, or telecommunications, with bidirectional upstream and downstream channels.[38]

XML has been increasingly employed as a means of data interchange since the early 2000s,[47] particularly for machine-oriented interactions such as those involved in web-oriented protocols such as SOAP,[45] describing "data-in-transit rather than... data-at-rest".[47]

Manipulation

[edit]

Hilbert and Lopez identify the exponential pace of technological change (a kind of Moore's law): machines' application-specific capacity to compute information per capita roughly doubled every 14 months between 1986 and 2007; the per capita capacity of the world's general-purpose computers doubled every 18 months during the same two decades; the global telecommunication capacity per capita doubled every 34 months; the world's storage capacity per capita required roughly 40 months to double (every 3 years); and per capita broadcast information has doubled every 12.3 years.[38]

Massive amounts of data are stored worldwide every day, but unless it can be analyzed and presented effectively it essentially resides in what have been called data tombs: "data archives that are seldom visited".[48] To address that issue, the field of data mining — "the process of discovering interesting patterns and knowledge from large amounts of data"[49] — emerged in the late 1980s.[50]

 

Services

[edit]

Email

[edit]
A woman sending an email at an internet cafe's public computer.

The technology and services IT provides for sending and receiving electronic messages (called "letters" or "electronic letters") over a distributed (including global) computer network. In terms of the composition of elements and the principle of operation, electronic mail practically repeats the system of regular (paper) mail, borrowing both terms (mail, letter, envelope, attachment, box, delivery, and others) and characteristic features — ease of use, message transmission delays, sufficient reliability and at the same time no guarantee of delivery. The advantages of e-mail are: easily perceived and remembered by a person addresses of the form user_name@domain_name (for example, somebody@example.com); the ability to transfer both plain text and formatted, as well as arbitrary files; independence of servers (in the general case, they address each other directly); sufficiently high reliability of message delivery; ease of use by humans and programs.

The disadvantages of e-mail include: the presence of such a phenomenon as spam (massive advertising and viral mailings); the theoretical impossibility of guaranteed delivery of a particular letter; possible delays in message delivery (up to several days); limits on the size of one message and on the total size of messages in the mailbox (personal for users).

Search system

[edit]

A search system is software and hardware complex with a web interface that provides the ability to look for information on the Internet. A search engine usually means a site that hosts the interface (front-end) of the system. The software part of a search engine is a search engine (search engine) — a set of programs that provides the functionality of a search engine and is usually a trade secret of the search engine developer company. Most search engines look for information on World Wide Web sites, but there are also systems that can look for files on FTP servers, items in online stores, and information on Usenet newsgroups. Improving search is one of the priorities of the modern Internet (see the Deep Web article about the main problems in the work of search engines).

Commercial effects

[edit]

Companies in the information technology field are often discussed as a group as the "tech sector" or the "tech industry."[51][52][53] These titles can be misleading at times and should not be mistaken for "tech companies," which are generally large scale, for-profit corporations that sell consumer technology and software. From a business perspective, information technology departments are a "cost center" the majority of the time. A cost center is a department or staff which incurs expenses, or "costs," within a company rather than generating profits or revenue streams. Modern businesses rely heavily on technology for their day-to-day operations, so the expenses delegated to cover technology that facilitates business in a more efficient manner are usually seen as "just the cost of doing business." IT departments are allocated funds by senior leadership and must attempt to achieve the desired deliverables while staying within that budget. Government and the private sector might have different funding mechanisms, but the principles are more or less the same. This is an often overlooked reason for the rapid interest in automation and artificial intelligence, but the constant pressure to do more with less is opening the door for automation to take control of at least some minor operations in large companies.

Many companies now have IT departments for managing the computers, networks, and other technical areas of their businesses. Companies have also sought to integrate IT with business outcomes and decision-making through a BizOps or business operations department.[54]

In a business context, the Information Technology Association of America has defined information technology as "the study, design, development, application, implementation, support, or management of computer-based information systems".[55][page needed] The responsibilities of those working in the field include network administration, software development and installation, and the planning and management of an organization's technology life cycle, by which hardware and software are maintained, upgraded, and replaced.

Information services

[edit]

Information services is a term somewhat loosely applied to a variety of IT-related services offered by commercial companies,[56][57][58] as well as data brokers.

Ethics

[edit]

The field of information ethics was established by mathematician Norbert Wiener in the 1940s.[60]: 9  Some of the ethical issues associated with the use of information technology include:[61]: 20–21 

  • Breaches of copyright by those downloading files stored without the permission of the copyright holders
  • Employers monitoring their employees' emails and other Internet usage
  • Unsolicited emails
  • Hackers accessing online databases
  • Web sites installing cookies or spyware to monitor a user's online activities, which may be used by data brokers

IT projects

[edit]

Research suggests that IT projects in business and public administration can easily become significant in scale. Research conducted by McKinsey in collaboration with the University of Oxford suggested that half of all large-scale IT projects (those with initial cost estimates of $15 million or more) often failed to maintain costs within their initial budgets or to complete on time.[62]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ On the later more broad application of the term IT, Keary comments: "In its original application 'information technology' was appropriate to describe the convergence of technologies with application in the vast field of data storage, retrieval, processing, and dissemination. This useful conceptual term has since been converted to what purports to be of great use, but without the reinforcement of definition ... the term IT lacks substance when applied to the name of any function, discipline, or position."[2]

References

[edit]

Citations

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  2. ^ Ralston, Hemmendinger & Reilly (2000), p. 869.
  3. ^ Forbes Technology Council, 16 Key Steps To Successful IT Project Management, published 10 September 2020, accessed 23 June 2023
  4. ^ Hindarto, Djarot (30 August 2023). "The Management of Projects is Improved Through Enterprise Architecture on Project Management Application Systems". International Journal Software Engineering and Computer Science. 3 (2): 151–161. doi:10.35870/ijsecs.v3i2.1512. ISSN 2776-3242.
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  6. ^ a b Leavitt, Harold J.; Whisler, Thomas L. (1958), "Management in the 1980s", Harvard Business Review, 11.
  7. ^ Slotten, Hugh Richard (1 January 2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199766666.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-976666-6.
  8. ^ Henderson, H. (2017). computer science. In H. Henderson, Facts on File science library: Encyclopedia of computer science and technology. (3rd ed.). [Online]. New York: Facts On File.
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  10. ^ Wright (2012), p. 279.
  11. ^ Chaudhuri (2004), p. 3.
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  16. ^ Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957). "Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 104 (9): 547. doi:10.1149/1.2428650.
  17. ^ KAHNG, D. (1961). "Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device". Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories: 583–596. doi:10.1142/9789814503464_0076. ISBN 978-981-02-0209-5. cite journal: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
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Further reading

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The background of the Web originated in the efforts of scientists and designers to build and interconnect local area network. The Internet Method Suite, the set of rules made use of to communicate in between networks and tools on the Internet, occurred from r & d in the United States and involved international cooperation, especially with scientists in the United Kingdom and France. Computer technology was an arising discipline in the late 1950s that started to think about time-sharing between computer system users, and later on, the opportunity of attaining this over vast location networks. J. C. R. Licklider created the idea of a global network at the Data processing Techniques Workplace (IPTO) of the USA Department of Defense (DoD) Advanced Research Study Projects Company (ARPA). Independently, Paul Baran at the RAND Company proposed a distributed network based upon data in message blocks in the early 1960s, and Donald Davies envisaged packet switching in 1965 at the National Physical Research Laboratory (NPL), suggesting a nationwide commercial data network in the UK. ARPA awarded agreements in 1969 for the advancement of the ARPANET task, directed by Robert Taylor and taken care of by Lawrence Roberts. ARPANET took on the packet changing innovation proposed by Davies and Baran. The network of User interface Message Processors (Brats) was constructed by a group at Screw, Beranek, and Newman, with the layout and spec led by Bob Kahn. The host-to-host protocol was specified by a group of graduate students at UCLA, led by Steve Crocker, along with Jon Postel and others. The ARPANET broadened swiftly throughout the United States with connections to the UK and Norway. Several very early packet-switched networks emerged in the 1970s which investigated and supplied data networking. Louis Pouzin and Hubert Zimmermann pioneered a streamlined end-to-end technique to internetworking at the IRIA. Peter Kirstein placed internetworking into method at College University London in 1973. Bob Metcalfe created the theory behind Ethernet and the PARC Universal Packet. ARPA campaigns and the International Network Working Group developed and fine-tuned concepts for internetworking, in which numerous different networks can be signed up with right into a network of networks. Vint Cerf, currently at Stanford University, and Bob Kahn, currently at DARPA, released their study on internetworking in 1974. Via the Web Experiment Note collection and later on RFCs this advanced into the Transmission Control Procedure (TCP) and Net Method (IP), 2 procedures of the Web method suite. The style consisted of ideas spearheaded in the French CYCLADES task directed by Louis Pouzin. The advancement of packet switching networks was underpinned by mathematical work in the 1970s by Leonard Kleinrock at UCLA. In the late 1970s, nationwide and international public information networks arised based on the X. 25 procedure, developed by Rémi Després and others. In the United States, the National Science Foundation (NSF) financed national supercomputing facilities at numerous universities in the United States, and gave interconnectivity in 1986 with the NSFNET job, hence creating network accessibility to these supercomputer websites for study and scholastic organizations in the United States.International connections to NSFNET, the introduction of architecture such as the Domain System, and the adoption of TCP/IP on existing networks in the USA and all over the world noted the starts of the Internet. Business Access provider (ISPs) emerged in 1989 in the USA and Australia. Restricted personal connections to components of the Net by formally commercial entities emerged in several American cities by late 1989 and 1990. The optical foundation of the NSFNET was deactivated in 1995, eliminating the last restrictions on the use of the Net to carry industrial traffic, as traffic transitioned to optical networks handled by Sprint, MCI and AT&T in the United States. Research study at CERN in Switzerland by the British computer system scientist Tim Berners-Lee in 1989–-- 90 led to the Net, connecting hypertext papers right into an info system, available from any type of node on the network. The significant development of the ability of the Internet, made it possible for by the advent of wave department multiplexing (WDM) and the rollout of fiber optic cords in the mid-1990s, had an innovative influence on society, business, and technology. This made possible the increase of near-instant communication by electronic mail, instant messaging, voice over Web Method (VoIP) phone call, video conversation, and the Web with its discussion forums, blogs, social networking solutions, and on the internet purchasing websites. Increasing quantities of data are transferred at higher and higher rates over fiber-optic networks running at 1 Gbit/s, 10 Gbit/s, and 800 Gbit/s by 2019. The Internet's takeover of the worldwide communication landscape was fast in historic terms: it only communicated 1% of the information flowing through two-way telecommunications networks in the year 1993, 51% by 2000, and more than 97% of the telecommunicated information by 2007. The Net remains to grow, driven by ever before better amounts of online info, business, enjoyment, and social networking services. Nevertheless, the future of the global network may be formed by local differences.

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