Internet Services in Rural Areas: What Are Your Options?

Internet Services in Rural Areas: What Are Your Options?

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Satellite Internet: Connecting the Unconnected


Satellite Internet: Connecting the Unconnected


So, youre stuck out in the boonies, huh?

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    And your internet options are, well, lets just say, less than stellar. (Been there!) Forget streaming Netflix – buffering is your new best friend. But dont despair! Theres hope on the horizon, folks! One option thats been a game-changer for many in rural areas is satellite internet.


    Now, I aint gonna lie, it aint perfect. It does involve beaming data to and from a satellite orbiting way up there (like, seriously far). This introduces latency, which means theres a slight delay. Its not ideal for online gaming where split-second reactions matter, but for general browsing, email, and even video calls, it can absolutely work. Think of it as a life raft in a digital desert!


    Satellite internet offers a lifeline to those who simply cannot get cable or reliable DSL. It doesn't depend on physical infrastructure in your area-no wires needed running along roads! If you have a clear view of the southern sky (usually), youre golden.


    Sure, there are some drawbacks. Installation can be a bit pricey, and data caps exist. You might find it isnt exactly the cheapest option out there. However, consider the alternative: no internet at all! For many, this isnt an option. Satellite internet provides a connection to the world, allowing people to work remotely, access education, and stay connected with loved ones. And thats something you cant put a price on, right?! Its definitely something to consider when other, more traditional options arent available. Gosh, it has drawbacks, yet it provides connectivity!

    Fixed Wireless Internet: Bridging the Gap


    Okay, so youre stuck out in the boonies and your internet options are, shall we say, limited. Dont fret! Were gonna chat about your choices, specifically fixed wireless internet.


    Now, when you think "rural internet," probably dial-up (ugh, remember that screeching sound?) or maybe satellite (pricey and, like, super laggy) pop into your head. But fixed wireless is kinda different. Its not your grandmas internet service.


    Basically, a provider sets up a tower (think a really tall antenna) somewhere with a solid internet connection. Then, they beam that signal to a smaller antenna they install at your house. No wires (well, not many). Its like a Wi-Fi connection, but instead of your phone connecting to your router inside your house, your house is connecting to a much bigger router miles away!


    Isnt that neat!?!


    Fixed wireless isnt without its downsides, I aint gonna lie. Things like trees, buildings, and even heavy rain can mess with the signal. Location, location, location, right?

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    Speed is also a factor; you might not hit those crazy-fast speeds you see in the city, but its usually way better than dial-up or certain satellite options. And it isnt always available everywhere, so definitely check if providers actually service your area (thats a biggie!).


    But (and this is a big but!), for lots of folks in rural areas, fixed wireless is honestly a lifesaver.

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    It can, you know, actually let you stream movies, attend video calls, and do all that essential online stuff without wanting to throw your computer out the window.


    So, yeah, explore your options. Fixed wireless might just be the thing that bridges that digital divide and gets you connected! Check it out, maybe? You might be surprised!

    Broadband over Power Lines (BPL): Powering Up Internet Access


    Okay, so, youre stuck in the boonies, huh? Craving decent internet? Well, Broadband over Power Lines (BPL) is, or could be, an option. Basically, its about using existing electrical power lines to transmit data. (Think of it like sending internet signals piggybacking on the electricity already flowing into your house!).


    Now, dont get too excited just yet! It aint all sunshine and roses.

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    BPL has had a rocky past. Early versions faced interference issues -- messing with radio signals and such. Imagine trying to watch your favorite show and all you get is static because your neighbors surfing the web! Argh!


    Theres also the speed thing. Its not always the fastest. And, lets be honest, you probably arent going to get the same speeds as fiber optic. Infrastructure upgrades are expensive, too. Companies gotta invest in the tech to make it work reliably, ya know?


    But hey, its not all doom and gloom. Newer BPL technologies are improving! And in areas where laying new fiber is just not feasible (mountains, super remote farms, etc.), BPL could be a viable alternative. Its all about weighing the pros and cons, isnt it? It might not be the perfect solution, but it could be a solution where previously there was none! So, do your research, check with providers in your area, and see if BPL could finally bring you into the 21st century!

    Community Networks: Building Local Connectivity Together


    Okay, so, like, "Community Networks: Building Local Connectivity Together," right? It sounds kinda fancy, but its really about folks in rural areas taking charge of their own internet access. I mean, lets face it, big internet providers often aint interested in stringing cables way out in the sticks (because, yknow, it aint profitable!). Thats where community networks come in.


    It aint just about downloading cat videos (though, hey, thats important too!). Its about access to education, telehealth, and even economic opportunities that you wouldnt believe! Think about it: farmers being able to use precision agriculture tech, small businesses reaching customers beyond their local area, and students doing research without driving an hour to the nearest library.


    These networks arent some monolithic, corporate thing.

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    Theyre built by the community, for the community. It could be a bunch of neighbors pooling resources, a local non-profit stepping up, or even a partnership with a university. They might use different technologies – maybe a wireless mesh network that bounces signals from house to house, or even a fiber optic connection that folks help to bury themselves!


    Now, it aint always easy. Theres funding to find, permits to get (ugh!), and technical expertise to wrangle. But hey, the benefits? Theyre HUGE! Having control over your own internet infrastructure means youre not beholden to some distant corporation. You get to decide whats important, and you can tailor the network to your specific needs. Its about building a digital future that, like, actually works for you!


    Dont think thats all the options, though! There are other ways to get rural internet (satellite, fixed wireless, cellular, etc.). But community networks offer some unique aspects, and the potential for real, lasting change! Its hard work, sure, but its empowering, and its about building something together, which is, well, pretty darn cool! Wow!

    Citations and other links

    The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to information technology:

    Information technology (IT) – microelectronics based combination of computing and telecommunications technology to treat information, including in the acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information. It is defined by the Information Technology Association of America (ITAA) as "the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems, particularly toward software applications and computer hardware."

    Different names

    [edit]

    There are different names for this at different periods or through fields. Some of these names are:

    Underlying technology

    [edit]

    History of information technology

    [edit]

    Information technology education and certification

    [edit]

    IT degrees

    [edit]

    Vendor-specific certifications

    [edit]

    Third-party and vendor-neutral certifications

    [edit]

    Third-party commercial organizations and vendor neutral interest groups that sponsor certifications include:

    General certification

    [edit]

    General certification of software practitioners has struggled. The ACM had a professional certification program in the early 1980s, which was discontinued due to lack of interest. Today, the IEEE is certifying software professionals, but only about 500 people have passed the exam by March 2005.

    Information technology and society

    [edit]

    Software Testing

    [edit]

    Further reading

    [edit]
    • Surveillance, Transparency and Democracy: Public Administration in the Information Age. p. 35-57. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, AL. ISBN 978-0-8173-1877-2

    References

    [edit]
    1. ^ "Information & Communication Technology" (PDF). www.un.org.
    2. ^ "Information technology". Archived from the original on 2013-08-26. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
    3. ^ "Data Communication Technology".
    4. ^ "Creative Digital Technologies".
    5. ^ "Design & technology".
    6. ^ "Communication Technology".
    7. ^ "Bachelor of Science in Information Technology".
    8. ^ "Master of Science in Information Technology".
    9. ^ "Bachelor of Computer Application".
    10. ^ "Master of Computer Applications" (PDF).
    11. ^ "AWS Certification". Amazon Web Services, Inc. Retrieved 22 May 2016.
    12. ^ "Apple - iServices - Technical Training". train.apple.com. Archived from the original on 2001-12-15.
    13. ^ "OCUP Certification - Home Page". Retrieved 22 May 2016.
    14. ^ By Shamus McGuillicuddy, SearchNetworking.com."SolarWinds offers network management training and certification Archived 2009-08-28 at the Wayback Machine." June 24, 2009. Retrieved August 20, 2009.
    15. ^ Haque, Akhlaque (2015). Surveillance, Transparency and Democracy: Public Administration in the Information Age. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. pp. 35–57. ISBN 978-0-8173-1877-2.

     

    European Strategic Programme on Research in Information Technology (ESPRIT) was a series of integrated programmes of information technology research and development projects and industrial technology transfer measures. It was a European Union initiative managed by the Directorate General for Industry (DG III) of the European Commission.

    Programmes

    [edit]

    Five ESPRIT programmes (ESPRIT 0 to ESPRIT 4) ran consecutively from 1983 to 1998. ESPRIT 4 was succeeded by the Information Society Technologies (IST) programme in 1999.

    Projects

    [edit]

    Some of the projects and products supported by ESPRIT were:

    • BBC Domesday Project, a partnership between Acorn Computers Ltd, Philips, Logica and the BBC with some funding from the European Commission's ESPRIT programme, to mark the 900th anniversary of the original Domesday Book, an 11th-century census of England. It is frequently cited as an example of digital obsolescence on account of the physical medium used for data storage.
    • CGAL, the Computational Geometry Algorithms Library (CGAL) is a software library that aims to provide easy access to efficient and reliable algorithms in computational geometry. While primarily written in C++, Python bindings are also available. The original funding for the project came from the ESPRIT project.
    • Eurocoop & Eurocode: ESPRIT III projects to develop systems for supporting distributed collaborative working.
    • Open Document Architecture, a free and open international standard document file format maintained by the ITU-T to replace all proprietary document file formats. In 1985 ESPRIT financed a pilot implementation of the ODA concept, involving, among others, Bull corporation, Olivetti, ICL and Siemens AG.
    • Paradise: A sub-project of the ESPRIT I project, COSINE[1] which established a pan-European computer-based network infrastructure that enabled research workers to communicate with each other using OSI. Paradise implemented a distributed X.500 directory across the academic community.
    • Password: Part of the ESPRIT III VALUE project,[2] developed secure applications based on the X.509 standard for use in the academic community.
    • ProCoS I Project (1989–1991), ProCoS II Project (1992–1995), and ProCoS-WG Working Group (1994–1997) on Provably Correct Systems, under ESPRIT II.[3]
    • REDO Project (1989–1992) on software maintenance, under ESPRIT II.[4]
    • RAISE, Rigorous Approach to Industrial Software Engineering, was developed as part of the European ESPRIT II LaCoS project in the 1990s, led by Dines Bjørner.
    • REMORA methodology is an event-driven approach for designing information systems, developed by Colette Rolland. This methodology integrates behavioral and temporal aspects with concepts for modelling the structural aspects of an information system. In the ESPRIT I project TODOS, which has led to the development of an integrated environment for the design of office information systems (OISs),
    • SAMPA: The Speech Assessment Methods Phonetic Alphabet (SAMPA) is a computer-readable phonetic script originally developed in the late 1980s.
    • SCOPES: The Systematic Concurrent design of Products, Equipments and Control Systems project was a 3-year project launched in July, 1992, with the aim of specifying integrated computer-aided (CAD) tools for design and control of flexible assembly lines.
    • SIP (Advanced Algorithms and Architectures for Speech and Image Processing), a partnership between Thomson-CSF, AEG, CSELT and ENSPS (ESPRIT P26), to develop the algorithmic and architectural techniques required for recognizing and understanding spoken or visual signals and to demonstrate these techniques in suitable applications.[5]
    • StatLog: "ESPRIT project 5170. Comparative testing and evaluation of statistical and logical learning algorithms on large-scale applications to classification, prediction and control"[6]
    • SUNDIAL (Speech UNderstanding DIALgue)[7] started in September 1988 with Logica Ltd. as prime contractor, together with Erlangen University, CSELT, Daimler-Benz, Capgemini, Politecnico di Torino. Followed the Esprit P.26 to implement and evaluate dialogue systems to be used in telephone industry.[8] The final results were 4 prototypes in 4 languages, involving speech and understanding technologies, and some criteria for evaluation were also reported.[9]
    • ISO 14649 (1999 onward): A standard for STEP-NC for CNC control developed by ESPRIT and Intelligent Manufacturing System.[10]
    • Transputers: "ESPRIT Project P1085" to develop a high performance multi-processor computer and a package of software applications to demonstrate its performance.[11]
    • Web for Schools, an ESPRIT IV project that introduced the World Wide Web in secondary schools in Europe. Teachers created more than 70 international collaborative educational projects that resulted in an exponential growth of teacher communities and educational activities using the World Wide Web
    • AGENT: A project led by IGN-France aiming at developing an operational automated map generalisation software based on multi-agent system paradigm.

    References

    [edit]
    1. ^ "COSINE". Cordis. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
    2. ^ "EC Value Programme".
    3. ^ Hinchey, M. G.; Bowen, J. P.; Olderog, E.-R., eds. (2017). Provably Correct Systems. NASA Monographs in Systems and Software Engineering. Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-48628-4. ISBN 978-3-319-48627-7. S2CID 7091220.
    4. ^ van Zuylen, H. J., ed. (1993). The Redo Compendium: Reverse Engineering for Software Maintenance. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-93607-3.
    5. ^ Pirani, Giancarlo, ed. (1990). Advanced algorithms and architectures for speech understanding. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 9783540534020.
    6. ^ "Machine Learning, Neural and Statistical Classification", Editors: D. Michie, D.J. Spiegelhalter, C.C. Taylor February 17, 1994 page 4, footnote 2, retrieved 12/12/2015 "The above book (originally published in 1994 by Ellis Horwood) is now out of print. The copyright now resides with the editors who have decided to make the material freely available on the web." http://www1.maths.leeds.ac.uk/~charles/statlog/
    7. ^ "SUNDIAL Project".
    8. ^ Peckham, Jeremy. "Speech Understanding and Dialogue over the telephone: an overview of the ESPRIT SUNDIAL project." HLT. 1991.
    9. ^ Alberto Ciaramella (1993): Prototype performance evaluation report. Sundial workpackage 8000 Final Report., CSELT TECHNICAL REPORTS 22 (1994): 241–241.
    10. ^ Hardwick, Martin; Zhao, Fiona; Proctor, Fred; Venkatesh, Sid; Odendahl, David; Xu, Xun (2011-01-01). "A Roadmap for STEP-NC Enabled Interoperable Manufacturing" (PDF). ASME 2011 International Manufacturing Science and Engineering Conference, Volume 2. ASMEDC. pp. 23–32. doi:10.1115/msec2011-50029. ISBN 978-0-7918-4431-1.
    11. ^ Harp, J. G. (1988). "Esprit project P1085 - reconfigurable transputer project". Proceedings of the third conference on Hypercube concurrent computers and applications Architecture, software, computer systems, and general issues. Vol. 1. New York, New York, USA: ACM Press. pp. 122–127. doi:10.1145/62297.62313. ISBN 0-89791-278-0.
    [edit]

     

    Internet history timeline

    Early research and development:

    Merging the networks and creating the Internet:

    Commercialization, privatization, broader access leads to the modern Internet:

    Examples of Internet services:

    The Internet Protocol (IP) is the network layer communications protocol in the Internet protocol suite for relaying datagrams across network boundaries. Its routing function enables internetworking, and essentially establishes the Internet.

    IP has the task of delivering packets from the source host to the destination host solely based on the IP addresses in the packet headers. For this purpose, IP defines packet structures that encapsulate the data to be delivered. It also defines addressing methods that are used to label the datagram with source and destination information. IP was the connectionless datagram service in the original Transmission Control Program introduced by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in 1974, which was complemented by a connection-oriented service that became the basis for the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). The Internet protocol suite is therefore often referred to as TCP/IP.

    The first major version of IP, Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4), is the dominant protocol of the Internet. Its successor is Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6), which has been in increasing deployment on the public Internet since around 2006.[1]

    Function

    [edit]
    Encapsulation of application data carried by UDP to a link protocol frame

    The Internet Protocol is responsible for addressing host interfaces, encapsulating data into datagrams (including fragmentation and reassembly) and routing datagrams from a source host interface to a destination host interface across one or more IP networks.[2] For these purposes, the Internet Protocol defines the format of packets and provides an addressing system.

    Each datagram has two components: a header and a payload. The IP header includes a source IP address, a destination IP address, and other metadata needed to route and deliver the datagram. The payload is the data that is transported. This method of nesting the data payload in a packet with a header is called encapsulation.

    IP addressing entails the assignment of IP addresses and associated parameters to host interfaces. The address space is divided into subnets, involving the designation of network prefixes. IP routing is performed by all hosts, as well as routers, whose main function is to transport packets across network boundaries. Routers communicate with one another via specially designed routing protocols, either interior gateway protocols or exterior gateway protocols, as needed for the topology of the network.[3]

    Addressing methods

    [edit]
    Routing schemes
    Unicast

    Broadcast

    Multicast

    Anycast

    There are four principal addressing methods in the Internet Protocol:

    • Unicast delivers a message to a single specific node using a one-to-one association between a sender and destination: each destination address uniquely identifies a single receiver endpoint.
    • Broadcast delivers a message to all nodes in the network using a one-to-all association; a single datagram (or packet) from one sender is routed to all of the possibly multiple endpoints associated with the broadcast address. The network automatically replicates datagrams as needed to reach all the recipients within the scope of the broadcast, which is generally an entire network subnet.
    • Multicast delivers a message to a group of nodes that have expressed interest in receiving the message using a one-to-many-of-many or many-to-many-of-many association; datagrams are routed simultaneously in a single transmission to many recipients. Multicast differs from broadcast in that the destination address designates a subset, not necessarily all, of the accessible nodes.
    • Anycast delivers a message to any one out of a group of nodes, typically the one nearest to the source using a one-to-one-of-many[4] association where datagrams are routed to any single member of a group of potential receivers that are all identified by the same destination address. The routing algorithm selects the single receiver from the group based on which is the nearest according to some distance or cost measure.

    Version history

    [edit]
    A timeline for the development of the transmission control Protocol TCP and Internet Protocol IP
    First Internet demonstration, linking the ARPANET, PRNET, and SATNET on November 22, 1977

    In May 1974, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) published a paper entitled "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication".[5] The paper's authors, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, described an internetworking protocol for sharing resources using packet switching among network nodes. A central control component of this model was the Transmission Control Program that incorporated both connection-oriented links and datagram services between hosts. The monolithic Transmission Control Program was later divided into a modular architecture consisting of the Transmission Control Protocol and User Datagram Protocol at the transport layer and the Internet Protocol at the internet layer. The model became known as the Department of Defense (DoD) Internet Model and Internet protocol suite, and informally as TCP/IP.

    The following Internet Experiment Note (IEN) documents describe the evolution of the Internet Protocol into the modern version of IPv4:[6]

    • IEN 2 Comments on Internet Protocol and TCP (August 1977) describes the need to separate the TCP and Internet Protocol functionalities (which were previously combined). It proposes the first version of the IP header, using 0 for the version field.
    • IEN 26 A Proposed New Internet Header Format (February 1978) describes a version of the IP header that uses a 1-bit version field.
    • IEN 28 Draft Internetwork Protocol Description Version 2 (February 1978) describes IPv2.
    • IEN 41 Internetwork Protocol Specification Version 4 (June 1978) describes the first protocol to be called IPv4. The IP header is different from the modern IPv4 header.
    • IEN 44 Latest Header Formats (June 1978) describes another version of IPv4, also with a header different from the modern IPv4 header.
    • IEN 54 Internetwork Protocol Specification Version 4 (September 1978) is the first description of IPv4 using the header that would become standardized in 1980 as RFC 760.
    • IEN 80
    • IEN 111
    • IEN 123
    • IEN 128/RFC 760 (1980)

    IP versions 1 to 3 were experimental versions, designed between 1973 and 1978.[7] Versions 2 and 3 supported variable-length addresses ranging between 1 and 16 octets (between 8 and 128 bits).[8] An early draft of version 4 supported variable-length addresses of up to 256 octets (up to 2048 bits)[9] but this was later abandoned in favor of a fixed-size 32-bit address in the final version of IPv4. This remains the dominant internetworking protocol in use in the Internet Layer; the number 4 identifies the protocol version, carried in every IP datagram. IPv4 is defined in

    RFC 791 (1981).

    Version number 5 was used by the Internet Stream Protocol, an experimental streaming protocol that was not adopted.[7]

    The successor to IPv4 is IPv6. IPv6 was a result of several years of experimentation and dialog during which various protocol models were proposed, such as TP/IX (

    RFC 1475), PIP (

    RFC 1621) and TUBA (TCP and UDP with Bigger Addresses,

    RFC 1347). Its most prominent difference from version 4 is the size of the addresses. While IPv4 uses 32 bits for addressing, yielding c. 4.3 billion (4.3×109) addresses, IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses providing c. 3.4×1038 addresses. Although adoption of IPv6 has been slow, as of January 2023, most countries in the world show significant adoption of IPv6,[10] with over 41% of Google's traffic being carried over IPv6 connections.[11]

    The assignment of the new protocol as IPv6 was uncertain until due diligence assured that IPv6 had not been used previously.[12] Other Internet Layer protocols have been assigned version numbers,[13] such as 7 (IP/TX), 8 and 9 (historic). Notably, on April 1, 1994, the IETF published an April Fools' Day RfC about IPv9.[14] IPv9 was also used in an alternate proposed address space expansion called TUBA.[15] A 2004 Chinese proposal for an IPv9 protocol appears to be unrelated to all of these, and is not endorsed by the IETF.

    IP version numbers

    [edit]

    As the version number is carried in a 4-bit field, only numbers 0–15 can be assigned.

    IP version Description Year Status
    0 Internet Protocol, pre-v4 N/A Reserved[16]
    1 Experimental version 1973 Obsolete
    2 Experimental version 1977 Obsolete
    3 Experimental version 1978 Obsolete
    4 Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)[17] 1981 Active
    5 Internet Stream Protocol (ST) 1979 Obsolete; superseded by ST-II or ST2
    Internet Stream Protocol (ST-II or ST2)[18] 1987 Obsolete; superseded by ST2+
    Internet Stream Protocol (ST2+) 1995 Obsolete
    6 Simple Internet Protocol (SIP) N/A Obsolete; merged into IPv6 in 1995[16]
    Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6)[19] 1995 Active
    7 TP/IX The Next Internet (IPv7)[20] 1993 Obsolete[21]
    8 P Internet Protocol (PIP)[22] 1994 Obsolete; merged into SIP in 1993
    9 TCP and UDP over Bigger Addresses (TUBA) 1992 Obsolete[23]
    IPv9 1994 April Fools' Day joke[24]
    Chinese IPv9 2004 Abandoned
    10–14 N/A N/A Unassigned
    15 Version field sentinel value N/A Reserved

    Reliability

    [edit]

    The design of the Internet protocol suite adheres to the end-to-end principle, a concept adapted from the CYCLADES project. Under the end-to-end principle, the network infrastructure is considered inherently unreliable at any single network element or transmission medium and is dynamic in terms of the availability of links and nodes. No central monitoring or performance measurement facility exists that tracks or maintains the state of the network. For the benefit of reducing network complexity, the intelligence in the network is located in the end nodes.

    As a consequence of this design, the Internet Protocol only provides best-effort delivery and its service is characterized as unreliable. In network architectural parlance, it is a connectionless protocol, in contrast to connection-oriented communication. Various fault conditions may occur, such as data corruption, packet loss and duplication. Because routing is dynamic, meaning every packet is treated independently, and because the network maintains no state based on the path of prior packets, different packets may be routed to the same destination via different paths, resulting in out-of-order delivery to the receiver.

    All fault conditions in the network must be detected and compensated by the participating end nodes. The upper layer protocols of the Internet protocol suite are responsible for resolving reliability issues. For example, a host may buffer network data to ensure correct ordering before the data is delivered to an application.

    IPv4 provides safeguards to ensure that the header of an IP packet is error-free. A routing node discards packets that fail a header checksum test. Although the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) provides notification of errors, a routing node is not required to notify either end node of errors. IPv6, by contrast, operates without header checksums, since current link layer technology is assumed to provide sufficient error detection.[25][26]

    [edit]

    The dynamic nature of the Internet and the diversity of its components provide no guarantee that any particular path is actually capable of, or suitable for, performing the data transmission requested. One of the technical constraints is the size of data packets possible on a given link. Facilities exist to examine the maximum transmission unit (MTU) size of the local link and Path MTU Discovery can be used for the entire intended path to the destination.[27]

    The IPv4 internetworking layer automatically fragments a datagram into smaller units for transmission when the link MTU is exceeded. IP provides re-ordering of fragments received out of order.[28] An IPv6 network does not perform fragmentation in network elements, but requires end hosts and higher-layer protocols to avoid exceeding the path MTU.[29]

    The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is an example of a protocol that adjusts its segment size to be smaller than the MTU. The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and ICMP disregard MTU size, thereby forcing IP to fragment oversized datagrams.[30]

    Security

    [edit]

    During the design phase of the ARPANET and the early Internet, the security aspects and needs of a public, international network were not adequately anticipated. Consequently, many Internet protocols exhibited vulnerabilities highlighted by network attacks and later security assessments. In 2008, a thorough security assessment and proposed mitigation of problems was published.[31] The IETF has been pursuing further studies.[32]

    See also

    [edit]

    References

    [edit]
    1. ^ The Economics of Transition to Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) (Report). OECD Digital Economy Papers. OECD. 2014-11-06. doi:10.1787/5jxt46d07bhc-en. Archived from the original on 2021-03-07. Retrieved 2020-12-04.
    2. ^ Charles M. Kozierok, The TCP/IP Guide, archived from the original on 2019-06-20, retrieved 2017-07-22
    3. ^ "IP Technologies and Migration — EITC". www.eitc.org. Archived from the original on 2021-01-05. Retrieved 2020-12-04.
    4. ^ GoÅ›cieÅ„, Róża; Walkowiak, Krzysztof; Klinkowski, MirosÅ‚aw (2015-03-14). "Tabu search algorithm for routing, modulation and spectrum allocation in elastic optical network with anycast and unicast traffic". Computer Networks. 79: 148–165. doi:10.1016/j.comnet.2014.12.004. ISSN 1389-1286.
    5. ^ Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. (1974). "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Communications. 22 (5): 637–648. doi:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259. ISSN 1558-0857. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-01-06. Retrieved 2020-04-06. The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations.
    6. ^ "Internet Experiment Note Index". www.rfc-editor.org. Retrieved 2024-01-21.
    7. ^ a b Stephen Coty (2011-02-11). "Where is IPv1, 2, 3, and 5?". Archived from the original on 2020-08-02. Retrieved 2020-03-25.
    8. ^ Postel, Jonathan B. (February 1978). "Draft Internetwork Protocol Specification Version 2" (PDF). RFC Editor. IEN 28. Retrieved 6 October 2022. Archived 16 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine
    9. ^ Postel, Jonathan B. (June 1978). "Internetwork Protocol Specification Version 4" (PDF). RFC Editor. IEN 41. Retrieved 11 February 2024. Archived 16 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine
    10. ^ Strowes, Stephen (4 Jun 2021). "IPv6 Adoption in 2021". RIPE Labs. Archived from the original on 2021-09-20. Retrieved 2021-09-20.
    11. ^ "IPv6". Google. Archived from the original on 2020-07-14. Retrieved 2023-05-19.
    12. ^ Mulligan, Geoff. "It was almost IPv7". O'Reilly. Archived from the original on 5 July 2015. Retrieved 4 July 2015.
    13. ^ "IP Version Numbers". Internet Assigned Numbers Authority. Archived from the original on 2019-01-18. Retrieved 2019-07-25.
    14. ^ RFC 1606: A Historical Perspective On The Usage Of IP Version 9. April 1, 1994.
    15. ^ Ross Callon (June 1992). TCP and UDP with Bigger Addresses (TUBA), A Simple Proposal for Internet Addressing and Routing. doi:10.17487/RFC1347. RFC 1347.
    16. ^ a b Jeff Doyle; Jennifer Carroll (2006). Routing TCP/IP. Vol. 1 (2 ed.). Cisco Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-58705-202-6.
    17. ^ Cite error: The named reference rfc791 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    18. ^ L. Delgrossi; L. Berger, eds. (August 1995). Internet Stream Protocol Version 2 (ST2) Protocol Specification - Version ST2+. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC1819. RFC 1819. Historic. Obsoletes RFC 1190 and IEN 119.
    19. ^ Cite error: The named reference rfc8200 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    20. ^ R. Ullmann (June 1993). TP/IX: The Next Internet. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC1475. RFC 1475. Historic. Obsoleted by RFC 6814.
    21. ^ C. Pignataro; F. Gont (November 2012). Formally Deprecating Some IPv4 Options. Internet Engineering Task Force. doi:10.17487/RFC6814. ISSN 2070-1721. RFC 6814. Proposed Standard. Obsoletes RFC 1385, 1393, 1475 and 1770.
    22. ^ P. Francis (May 1994). Pip Near-term Architecture. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC1621. RFC 1621. Historical.
    23. ^ Ross Callon (June 1992). TCP and UDP with Bigger Addresses (TUBA), A Simple Proposal for Internet Addressing and Routing. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC1347. RFC 1347. Historic.
    24. ^ J. Onions (1 April 1994). A Historical Perspective On The Usage Of IP Version 9. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC1606. RFC 1606. Informational. This is an April Fools' Day Request for Comments.
    25. ^ RFC 1726 section 6.2
    26. ^ RFC 2460
    27. ^ Rishabh, Anand (2012). Wireless Communication. S. Chand Publishing. ISBN 978-81-219-4055-9. Archived from the original on 2024-06-12. Retrieved 2020-12-11.
    28. ^ Siyan, Karanjit. Inside TCP/IP, New Riders Publishing, 1997. ISBN 1-56205-714-6
    29. ^ Bill Cerveny (2011-07-25). "IPv6 Fragmentation". Arbor Networks. Archived from the original on 2016-09-16. Retrieved 2016-09-10.
    30. ^ Parker, Don (2 November 2010). "Basic Journey of a Packet". Symantec. Symantec. Archived from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved 4 May 2014.
    31. ^ Fernando Gont (July 2008), Security Assessment of the Internet Protocol (PDF), CPNI, archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-02-11
    32. ^ F. Gont (July 2011). Security Assessment of the Internet Protocol version 4. doi:10.17487/RFC6274. RFC 6274.
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